Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 - April 18, 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (together with quantum mechanics). His work is also known for his influence on the philosophy of science. It is best known by the general public for its energy-mass equality formula = mc 2 , which has been dubbed "equation most famous in the world ". He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services in theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", an important step in the development of quantum theory.
Toward the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newton's mechanics was no longer sufficient to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop a special theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern (1902-1909), Switzerland. However, he realized that the principle of relativity could also be extended to the field of gravity, and he published a paper on general relativity in 1916 with his theory of gravity. He continues to deal with the problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanation of particle theory and molecular motion. He also investigated the heat properties of light that laid the foundations of the photon light theory. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe.
He lived in Switzerland between 1895 and 1914, except for a year in Prague, and he received his academic diploma from Swiss federal polytechnic school (later EidgenÃÆ'¶ssische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in ZÃÆ'¼rich in 1900. He taught theoretical physics there between 1912 and 1914 before he left for Berlin. He obtained Swiss citizenship in 1901, which he kept for the rest of his life after stateless citizenship for more than five years. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. That same year, he published four innovative papers during his famous annus mirabilis (the miracle year) that took him into the academic world at the age of 26.
He visited the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and he did not return to Germany, where he became professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt reminding him of the potential development of a "very strong bomb of a new type" and recommended that the US begin research similar. This eventually led to the Manhattan Project. Einstein supported the Allied forces, but he generally denounced the idea of ​​using nuclear fission as a weapon. He signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, who highlights the dangers of nuclear weapons. He was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.
Einstein publishes over 300 scientific papers and over 150 non-scientific works. His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius". Eugene Wigner writes of Einstein in comparison with his contemporaries that "Einstein's understanding is deeper than Jancsi von Neumann, his mind is sharper and more original than von Neumann, and that is a remarkable statement."
Video Albert Einstein
Life and career
Early life and education
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of WÃÆ'¼rttemberg in the German Empire, on March 14, 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Einstein's father and uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & amp; Cie , a company that produces electrical appliances based on direct current.
Einstein was a disobedient Ashkenazi Jew, and Albert attended the Catholic elementary school in Munich, from the age of 5, for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received secondary and secondary education until he left the German Empire seven years later.
In 1894, the companies Hermann and Jakob lost their bid to supply Munich with electric lighting because they did not have the capital to convert their equipment from the standard direct current (DC) to a more efficient standard AC (AC) standard. The loss forced the Munich factory sales. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein, then 15, lived in Munich to complete his studies at Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intends to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and hated school regimens and methods of teaching. He then wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thinking is lost in rigorous learning. At the end of December 1894, he went to Italy to join his family at Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using doctor's records. During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay entitled "On Ether State Investigation in Magnetic Field".
Einstein always excelled in mathematics and physics from a young age, reaching math levels for many years in front of his friends. Twelve-year-old Einstein studied algebra and Euclidean geometry for one summer. Einstein also independently found the original proof of Pythagoras's theorem at the age of 12 years. A teacher of the Max Talmud family said that after he gave Einstein a 12-year-old geometry book, after a short time "[Einstein] had worked on the whole book.. He then devoted himself to higher mathematics... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I can not keep up. "His passion for geometry and algebra led to a twelve-year-old child becoming convinced that nature can be understood as a" mathematical structure ". Einstein began teaching his own calculus at the age of 12, and when he was 14, he said he had "mastered integral and differential calculus".
At the age of 13, Einstein was introduced to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, and Kant became his favorite philosopher, his tutor declared: "When he was a boy, only thirteen years old, but Kant's works were not understood by ordinary people, becomes clear to him. "
In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance exam for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in ZÃÆ'¼rich (later EidgenÃÆ'¶ssische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to achieve the required standards in the general section of the exam, but earned tremendous value in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the headmaster of the Polytechnic, he attended the Argovian cantabria school (gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to finish high school. While living with the family of professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. Sister Albert Maja later married Winteler's son, Paul. In January 1896, with the consent of his father, Einstein abandoned his citizenship in the Kingdom of WÃÆ'¼rttemberg of Germany to avoid military service. In September 1896, he graduated from Swiss Matura with most good grades, including a top grade of 6 subjects in physics and mathematics, on a scale of 1-6. At 17, he enrolled in a four-year mathematics and diploma program teaching physics at ZÃÆ'¼rich Polytechnic. Marie Winteler, who was a year older, moved to Olsberg, Switzerland, for a teaching post.
Einstein's future wife, a 20-year-old Serbian Mileva Mari?, Was also enrolled in the Polytechnic that year. She is the only female among six students in the mathematics and physics department of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Mari's friendship evolved into romance, and they read a book together about extra-curricular physics in which Einstein got interested. In 1900, Einstein passed the examinations in Mathematics and Physics and was awarded a diploma teaching Federal Polytechnic. Is there a claim that Mari? collaborated with Einstein in his 1905 paper, known as the letters of Annus Mirabilis, but the physics historian who had studied this subject found no evidence that he made a substantive contribution.
Marriage and children
Initial correspondence between Einstein and Mari? discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that the couple had a daughter named "Lieserl", born in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Mari? live with his parents. Let? return to Switzerland without a child, whose name and original fate are unknown. The contents of Einstein's letter in September 1903 show that the girl either gave up for adoption or died of dengue fever in infancy.
Einstein and Mari? married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son Hans Albert Einstein was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their son Eduard was born in ZÃÆ'¼rich in July 1910. The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Mari? returned to ZÃÆ'¼rich with their sons after learning that the main attraction of Einstein was his first and second cousin, Elsa. They divorced on February 14, 1919, living apart for five years. Eduard had a disorder around the age of 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. His mother took care of him and he also committed to asylum for several periods, finally carried out permanently after his death.
In a letter revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his wife, Marie Winteler, about her marriage and her strong feelings for her. He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in a heartfelt love every spare minute and I am very unhappy because only a man can." He spoke of "misguided love" and "lost life" about his love for Marie.
Einstein married Elsa LÃÆ'¶wenthal in 1919, having been in contact with him since 1912. He is a mother cousin and a second cousin on the father's side. They emigrated to the United States in 1933, and he was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935. He died in December 1936.
Friends
Among Einstein's famous friends are Michele Besso, Paul Ehrenfest, Marcel Grossmann, JÃÆ'¡nos Plesch, Daniel Q. Posin, Maurice Solovine, and Stephen Wise.
Patent office
After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He obtained Swiss citizenship in February 1901, but was not required for medical reasons. With the help of Marcel Grossmann's father, he got a job in Bern in the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, patent office, as a test assistant - level III.
Einstein evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including gravel sorters and electromechanical typewriters. In 1903, his position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, though he was passed for promotion until he "completely mastered machine technology".
Much of his work in the patent office is related to the question of electrical signal transmission and time synchronization of mechanics, two technical problems that emerged prominently in thought experiments that ultimately led Einstein to his radical conclusion about the nature of light and the fundamental relationship between space and time.
With several friends he had met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902, calling himself "The Olympia Academy", who met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings include the works of Henri PoincarÃÆ' ©, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical views.
First scientific paper
In 1900, Einstein's paper "Folgerungen aus den CapillaritÃÆ'¤tserscheinungen" ("Conclusion of the Phenomenon of Capillarity") was published in the journal Annalen der Physik . On April 30, 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as a pro-forma adviser. As a result, Einstein was awarded a PhD degree by the University of ZÃÆ'¼rich, with his dissertation " New Determination of Molecular Dimensions ".
In the same year, which has been called Einstein annus mirabilis, he published four innovative papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and equality of mass and energy, which is to bring it to notice of the academic world, at the age of 26.
Academic career
In 1908, he was recognized as a prominent scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, after giving a lecture on electrodynamics and the principle of relativity at the University of ZÃÆ'¼rich, Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created teacher in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed professor in 1909.
Einstein became a full professor at the Charles-Ferdinand University of Germany in Prague in April 1911, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so. During his stay in Prague, he wrote 11 scientific papers, five of them on mathematical radiation and on quantum quantum theory. In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in ZÃÆ'¼rich. From 1912 to 1914, he was professor of theoretical physics at ETH Zurich, where he taught analytic and thermodynamic mechanics. He also studied continuum mechanics, molecular theory of heat, and gravity problems, where he worked with mathematician and friend Marcel Grossmann.
On 3 July 1913, he was elected to membership at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Max Planck and Walther Nernst visited him next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, also offered him a post of director at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which was to be set up soon. (Membership in the academy includes paid salary and professorship without teaching assignment at Berlin's Humboldt University.) He was formally elected to the academy on 24 July, and he was accepted to move to the German Empire the following year. Her decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near her cousin Elsa, with whom she had developed a romantic relationship. He joined the academy and then the University of Berlin on April 1, 1914. When World War I broke out that year, plans for the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics were canceled. The Institute was founded on October 1, 1917, with Einstein as its director. In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society (1916-1918).
Based on Einstein's calculations made in 1911, on his new general theory of relativity, the light of other stars must be bended by the Sun's gravity. In 1919, the prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during a solar eclipse on May 29, 1919. The observations were published in international media, making Einstein famous in the world. On November 7, 1919, the leading English newspaper The Times printed a banner title that read: "The Science Revolution - New Theory of the Universe - Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".
In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Dutch Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services for Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the photoelectric law". While the general theory of relativity is still considered somewhat controversial, the quotation also does not treat the work cited as explanation but only as a legal discovery as the idea of ​​photons is considered strange and does not accept universal acceptance until 1924 derivative of the Planck spectrum by SN Bose. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.
1921-1922: Travel abroad
Einstein visited New York City for the first time on April 2, 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to give lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House. Upon his return to Europe he was a guest of British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met some famous scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at King's College London.
He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the United States," in July 1921, where he tried briefly to describe some of the characteristics of Americans, just like Alexis de Tocqueville, who published his own impression in Democracy in America. (1835). For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly shocked: "What surprised the visitor was a happy and positive attitude... The Americans are friendly, confident, optimistic, and without envy."
In 1922, his journey took him to Asia and then to Palestine, as part of a six-month journey and speaking tour, when he visited Singapore, Ceylon and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met emperors and empresses at the Royal Palace, where thousands of people came to watch. In a letter to his sons, he describes his impressions of the Japanese as being simple, intelligent, caring, and having true artistic nuances.
Due to Einstein's trip to the Far East, he could not personally receive the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm awards ceremony in December 1922. In his place, a banquet speech was held by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as a peacemaker and international activists.
On his return journey, he visits Palestine for 12 days in what will be his only visit to the region. He was greeted as if he were a head of state, not a physicist, who included the tribute of a cannon after arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception, the building was raided by people who wanted to see and hear it. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed the joy that the Jews began to be recognized as a force in the world.
Einstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly met Santiago Ramón Cajal and also received a diploma from King Alfonso XIII who named him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences.
From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations in Geneva, a body created to promote international exchanges between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists, and intellectuals. Originally appointed to serve as a Swiss delegate, Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded by Catholic activists Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta to make him a German delegate, allowing Gonzague de Reynold to take Switzerland, from which he promoted traditionalist Catholicism. values. Former physics professor Hendrik Lorentz and French chemist Marie Curie are also members of the committee. 1930-1931: _Travel_to_the_U.S. "> 1930-1931: Trips to the US
In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a researcher at the California Institute of Technology. After the national attention he received during his first trip to the US, he and his organizers aimed to protect his privacy. Though flooded with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or public speaking, he rejected them all.
Upon arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various venues and events, including Chinatown, lunch with editors of the New York Times, and Carmen's performances at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was encouraged by the audience upon his arrival. During the following days, he was given a key to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met with Columbia University president, who described Einstein as "the king of the rulers of the mind". Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at Riverside Church in New York, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-sized, church-made sculpture from Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during the Hanukkah festivities.
Einstein traveled to California, where he met with Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. Her friendship with Millikan is "awkward", as Millikan "has a tendency for patriotic militarism," in which Einstein was a pacifist pronounced. In a lecture to Caltech students, Einstein noted that science often tends to be more dangerous than good.
The reluctance to fight also led Einstein to befriends writer Upton Sinclair and movie star Charlie Chaplin, both of whom are well known for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They have an instant relationship, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said that Einstein's outwardly calm, gentle persona seemed to conceal the "high emotional temperament," from which came "his remarkable intellectual energy."
The Chaplin movie, City Lights , will be aired a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invites Einstein and Elsa to join him as a special guest. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, describes this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the celebrity new era". Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on his next trip to Berlin, and recalled his "modest little flats" and the piano in which he began to write his theory. Chaplin speculates that it was "probably used as firewood by the Nazis."
1933: Emigrate to US.
In February 1933 while visiting the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise of Nazi rule under the new German chancellor, Adolf Hitler.
While at American universities in early 1933, he made a third professor's visit at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. He and his wife Elsa returned to Belgium by ship in March, and during the trip they learned that their cottage was invaded by the Nazis and his private sailboat was confiscated. After landing in Antwerp on March 28, he immediately went to the German consulate and handed over his passport, formally releasing his German citizenship. The Nazis then sold his boat and turned his cabin into Hitler's Youth camp.
Refugee Status
In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed a law prohibiting Jews from holding official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian Gerald Holton explains how, with "almost no sounding protests raised by their peers", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to surrender their university positions and their names were removed from the scrolls of the institutions in which they were employed.
A month later, Einstein's work was among those targeted by the German Student Union in the burning of Nazi books, with Nazi propaganda Joseph Goebbels declaring, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine put him in the list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not hung", offering a $ 5,000 reward on his head. In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must admit that their brutality and cowardice came as a surprise." After moving to the United States, he described book burning as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "avoided popular enlightenment," and "more than anything else in the world, feared the influence of people from intellectual independence."
Einstein is now without a permanent home, unsure of where he will live and work, and is also worried about the fate of many other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he stayed for several months. At the end of July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had been a friend with Einstein in previous years. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson sent two assistants to watch him in his remote cottage outside London, with photos of them carrying guns and keeping Einstein, published on July 24, 1933.
Locker-Lampson took Einstein to Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. The English historian Martin Gilbert noted that Churchill immediately responded, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann to Germany to search for Jewish scientists and put them in British universities. Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven out the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put Allied technology ahead of them.
Einstein then contacted the leaders of other countries, including the Turkish Prime Minister, "smet? NÃÆ'¶nÃÆ'¼, to whom he wrote in September 1933 asking for the placement of unemployed Jewish-German scientists.As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitations to Turkey eventually reaching more than "1,000 saved individuals".
Locker-Lampson also filed a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which Einstein made a number of public appearances depicting the crisis in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced German treatment of Jews while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, because they were denied citizenship elsewhere. In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in England. Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, USA, to become a resident scholar.
Scholars citizens at the Institute for Advanced Study
In October 1933 Einstein returned to the United States and took up positions at the Institute for Advanced Study, known for being a refuge for scientists who fled from Nazi Germany. At that time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had little or no Jewish teachers or students, as a result of their Jewish quota that lasted until the late 1940s.
Einstein still has not decided for his future. He received offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford where he stayed for three brief periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered 5 years, but in 1935 he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States. and apply for citizenship.
Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study will last until his death in 1955. He was one of the first four elected (the other two being John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a friendship with GÃÆ'Â ¶del. Both will take a walk together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, then became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop an integrated field theory and refuted the accepted quantum physics interpretation, both of which were unsuccessful.
World War II and Manhattan Project
In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists who included ÃÆ'Â © migrÃÆ'Â © physicist LeÃÆ'³ SzilÃÆ'¡rd tried to warn Washington against the ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warning was discounted. Einstein and SzilÃÆ'¡rd, along with other refugees like Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "consider it their responsibility to warn Americans of the possibility that German scientists might win the race to make the atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler will become more than willing to use such weapons. "To ensure the US was aware of the dangers, in July 1939, a few months before the start of World War II in Europe, SzilÃÆ'¡rd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of an atomic bomb, to which a pacifist, Einstein, never consider it. He was asked to provide his support by writing a letter, with SzilÃÆ'¡rd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US to pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.
The letter is believed to be "a major stimulus to the adoption of a serious US investigation into nuclear weapons on the eve of US entry into World War II". In addition to the letter, Einstein used his relationship with the Royal Family of Belgium and Belgian Belgian mother to gain access with his personal envoy to the White House Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his encounter with Roosevelt, the United States entered a "race" to develop the bomb, utilizing "enormous material, financial, and scientific resources" to start the Manhattan Project.
For Einstein, "war is a disease... [and] he calls for the fight against war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he is against his pacifist principles. In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one big mistake in my life - when I signed a letter to President Roosevelt recommended that an atomic bomb be made, but there are some justifications - the danger that Germany will make they... "
US. citizenship
Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Shortly after completing his career at the Institute for Advanced Study (in Princeton, New Jersey), he expressed his appreciation for meritocracy in American culture when compared to Europe. He acknowledges "the right of individuals to say and think what they love", without social barriers, and as a result, individuals are encouraged, he says, to become more creative, a trait he values ​​from his own early education.
Personal life
Civil rights advocates
Einstein was a passionate and committed antirasis and joined the National Association for Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) at Princeton, where he campaigned for African-American civil rights. He regards racism as America's "worst disease", seeing it as "inherited from one generation to the next". As part of his involvement, he corresponded to civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was ready to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951. When Einstein volunteered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.
In 1946, Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historic black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. (Lincoln is the first university in the United States to award a degree to African American, alumni including Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall.) Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not mean to be silent about it." A resident of Princeton recalled that Einstein had paid tuition for black students.
Helping Zionists cause
Einstein was the puppet leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925, and was one of the first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He also proposed various suggestions for his initial program.
Among them, he advised first to make the Agricultural Institute to complete the undeveloped land. It should be followed, he suggests, by the Institute of Chemistry and the Institute of Microbiology, to counter various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which it calls "crimes" that destroy one-third of the country's development. Establishing an Oriental Institute of Studies, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic, for the scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, is also important.
Chaim Weizmann later became Israel's first president. After his death in November 1952 and at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of the President of Israel, a largely ceremonial outpost. The offer was made by the Israeli ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect the Jews can hold back to their sons". Einstein refused, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "instantly sad and ashamed" that he could not accept it.
Like music
Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age, and later wrote: "If I was not a physicist, I would probably become a musician I often think in music I live in my daydreaming music I see my life in music. I enjoy living with music the most. "
His mother played the piano quite well and wanted his son to learn the violin, not only instilling his passion for music but also helping him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein is said to have started playing when he was 5 years old, though he did not enjoy it at that age.
When he was 13 years old, he found a violin sonata from Mozart, where "Einstein fell in love" with Mozart music and studied music more willingly. He taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically", he said, deciding that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty." At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played Beethoven's violin sonata, a tester who declared afterwards that his game was "extraordinary and revealed a 'great insight'." What surprised the tester, writes Botstein, is that Einstein "shows a deep love of music, quality that remains and remains lacking." Music has an unusual meaning to this student. "
Music has played an important and permanent role in Einstein's life since that period. Although the idea of ​​becoming a professional musician himself does not exist in his mind all the time, among those who play room music are some professionals, and he performs for private audiences and friends. Chamber music has also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, ZÃÆ'¼rich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes incorrectly credited as editor of the Mozart KÃÆ'¶chel 1937 catalog edition; the edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may be a distant relation.
In 1931, while involved in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members from Zoellner Quartet. Toward the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him at Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's coordination and intonation".
During his days at Oxford, he was accompanied by Russi Mody on the piano, while he played the violin. Mody sometimes fills the gap of knowledge that Einstein possesses in Nuclear Physics.
Political and religious views
Einstein's political views support socialism and criticism of capitalism, which he detailed in his essay such as "Why Socialism?". Einstein offers and is called upon to provide judgments and opinions about things that are often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocates the idea of ​​a democratic global government that will examine the power of the nation-state within the framework of the world federation. The FBI made secret documents to Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages.
Einstein speaks of his spiritual views in various original writings and interviews. Einstein states that he believes in pantheistic god Baruch Spinoza. He does not believe in a personal God who worries himself with the fate and actions of man, the view he describes as naÃÆ'¯ve. He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist", would rather call himself agnostic, or "a very religious non-believer." When asked if he believed in the afterlife, Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for me."
As for its affiliates, Einstein is primarily concerned with cultural and non-religious and ethical Culture groups both in Britain and in the US. He serves on the advisory board of New York's First Humanist Society, and is an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association, which publishes the New Humanist in the UK. For the 70th anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of ​​the Ethical Culture embodies his personal concept of what is most precious and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity."
Death
On April 17, 1955, Einstein suffered an internal bleeding caused by the rupture of a stomach aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948. He took the concept of a speech he prepared for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh birthday with him to the home sick, but he did not live long enough to finish it.
Einstein rejected the operation, saying, "I want to go when I want it, not to artificially prolong life, I've done my part, now it's time to go I'll do it elegantly." He died at Princeton Hospital the following morning at the age of 76, after continuing to work until near the end.
During the autopsy, Princeton Hospital Pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey ruled out Einstein's brain for the unauthorized conservation of his family, in the hope that future neuroscience would find what made Einstein so intelligent. The remains of Einstein were cremated and his ashes scattered in an undisclosed location.
In a memorial address delivered on 13 December 1965, at UNESCO's headquarters, the nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer summarizes Einstein's impression as a person: "He is almost completely devoid of sophistication and utterly devoid of worldliness... There is always an extraordinary sanctity at once childish and very stubborn. "
Maps Albert Einstein
Scientific career
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. He published over 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific papers. On December 5, 2014, the university and archives announced the release of Einstein's paper, which comprised more than 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius." In addition to the work he does himself, he also collaborates with other scientists in additional projects including Bose-Einstein statistics, Einstein's refrigerator, and others.
1905 - Annus Mirabilis paper
The Annus Mirabilis paper is the four articles relating to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, special relativity theory, and E = mc 2 which Einstein published in the journal scientific research of Annalen der Physik in 1905. These four works substantially contribute to the foundations of modern physics and alter the views of space, time, and matter. The four papers are:
Statistical mechanics
Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was about the appeal of capillaries. It was published in 1901 under the title "Folgerungen aus den CapillaritÃÆ'¤tserscheinungen", which is translated as "The conclusion of the phenomenon of capillarity". The two papers he published in 1902-1903 (thermodynamics) attempt to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. This paper is the basis for a 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which shows that the Brownian movement can be interpreted as strong evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was primarily concerned with the effect of atomic size confined to diffusion phenomena.
Critical opalescence theory
Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving the treatment of density variations in liquids at his critical point. Usually density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At a critical point, this derivative is zero, causing large fluctuations. The effects of density fluctuations are the light of all wavelengths spread, making the liquid look like milk white. Einstein connects this with Rayleigh scattering, which occurs when the size of fluctuations is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein quantitatively gained critical opalescence from the treatment of density fluctuations, and showed how the effects and Rayleigh scattering derived from the constitution of atomistic matter.
Special relativity
General principles
He articulates the principle of relativity. It is understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalized invariant rotation from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and then proved are the principles of equality, general covarians and adiabatic invariant principles of quantum numbers.
The theory of relativity and E = mc ²
Einstein "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter KÃÆ'¶rper " ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Objects") was accepted on 30 June 1905 and published September 26 of the same year. It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, introducing major changes in mechanics near the speed of light. This came to be known as Einstein's special theory of relativity.
These consequences include the space-time framework of moving objects that appear to slow down and contract (in the direction of movement) when measured in the observer frame. The paper also argues that the notion of luminiferous ether - one of the foremost theoretical entities in physics at the time - was excessive.
In his paper on mass-energy equality, Einstein produced E Ã, = Ã, mc 2 of the relativity equation in particular. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, beginning with Max Planck.
General relativity
General relativity and principle of equality
General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravity developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the gravitational attraction observed among the masses results from the curvature of space and time by the mass. General relativity has developed into an important tool in modern astrophysics. This provides a foundation for the current understanding of black holes, the spatial region in which gravitational attraction is so strong that even light can not escape.
As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity is that the preference of inertial motion in special relativity is unsatisfactory, while the theory which from the beginning prefers no state of motion (even the accelerated) would seem more satisfying. As a result, in 1907 he published an article about acceleration under special relativity. In an article entitled "On the Principles of Relativity and Conclusions Withdrawn from It", he argues that free fall is a truly inert movement, and that for free falling observers, the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the principle of equality. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of widening the time of gravity, gravitational redshift and deflection of light.
In 1911, Einstein published another article "About the Influence of Gravity on the Propagation of Light" which developed in the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection by large bodies. Thus, the general theoretical predictions of relativity can be for the first time tested experimentally.
Gravitational waves
In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime that propagated as waves, moving out of the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity because of Lorentz's invariance which carries the concept of a limited velocity of propagation of gravitational physical interaction with it. In contrast, gravitational waves can not exist in Newton's theory of gravity, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.
The first indirect gravitational wave detection, coming in the 1970s through the observation of a pair of closely neutron orbiting stars, PSR B1913 16. The description of decay in its orbital period is that they emit gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed on February 11, 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observations of gravitational waves, detected on Earth on September 14, 2015, exactly one hundred years after prediction.
The hole argument and Entwurf theory
While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the measurement of invariance in theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that the general field theory of relativity was impossible. He gives up seeking full covariance tensor equations, and looks for equations that will become invariant under general linear transformation only.
In June 1913, Entwurf's theory ("draft") was the result of this investigation. As the name implies, it is a theoretical sketch, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with motion equations equipped with additional gauge setting conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was erroneous and abandoned the theory in November 1915.
Physical cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the theory of general relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He found that general field equations predict a dynamic universe, either contracting or expanding. As proof of observation for a dynamic universe unknown at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, cosmological constant, to the field equation, to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predict a closed static world of curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principles in these years. This model is known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe.
After the discovery of a nebula recession by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned the static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of 1931 and Einstein-de Sitter Universe of 1932. In each of these models, Einstein throw away the cosmological constant, claiming that it's "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory".
In many Einstein biographies, it is said that Einstein refers to the cosmological constant in the following years as his "greatest error". Astrophysicist Mario Livio recently doubted this claim, suggesting that it might be overkill.
By the end of 2013, a team led by Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh found evidence that, shortly after studying Hubble's observations of a nebula recession, Einstein was considered a stable model of the universe. In a now neglected manuscript, written in early 1931, Einstein explored the expanding model of the universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to the creation of continuous matter, a process associated with the cosmological constant. As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to the solution for equation (1) which can explain the facts of Hubbel [ sic ], and where the density is constant of the time to the time "..." If one considers the physically restricted volume, the material particles will continue to leave, for the density remains constant, the new material particles must be constantly formed in volume from outer space. "
Thus it appears that Einstein is considered a well-established model of the universe that developed many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, Einstein's steady state model contains a fundamental weakness and he quickly abandoned the idea.
Energy pseudotensor momentum
General relativity includes a dynamic spacetime, making it difficult to see how to identify energy and momentum being conserved. Noether's Theorem allows this number to be determined from the Lagrangian language with the invariance of translation, but common covari- ans make the invariance of translation into something of a measuring symmetry. The energy and momentum obtained in general relativity by Noether presecriptions make no real tensor for this reason.
Einstein argues that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field can be made disappear by the choice of coordinates. He states that the pseudotensor momentum of non-covariance energy is actually the best description of the energy momentum distribution in the gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become the standard.
The use of non-covariant objects such as pseudotensor was severely criticized in 1917 by Erwin SchrÃÆ'¶dinger and others.
Worm hole
In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a wormhole model, often called the Einstein-Rosen bridge. The motivation is to model the elementary particle with charge as the solution of the gravitational field equation, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Does the Field of Gravity play an Important Role in the Basic Particle Constitution?". This solution cuts and pastes Schwarzschild's black hole to create a bridge between two patches.
If one end of the wormhole is positively charged, the other end will be negatively charged. These qualities make Einstein believe that the pairs of particles and antiparticles can be described in this way.
The Einstein-Cartan Theory
To insert spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needs to be generalized to include an antisymmetric section, called torque. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.
Equation of motion
The general theory of relativity has a basic law - Einstein's equation which describes how the space curve, the geodesic equation describing how the moving particles can be derived from Einstein's equations.
Since the equations of general relativity are not linear, a mass of energy made of a pure gravity field, such as a black hole, will move on a path determined by Einstein's own equation, not by the new law. So Einstein proposes that the path of a single solution, such as a black hole, would be determined to be geodesic of general relativity itself.
It was founded by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointless objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for rotating objects.
Old quantum theory
Photons and energy quanta
In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of local particles ( quanta ). Quanta Einstein's light was almost universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea was only universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and by measurement of Compton scattering.
Einstein concluded that each frequency wave f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how particles are related to waves. But he suggested that this idea would explain the results of certain experiments, particularly the photoelectric effect.
Measured atomic vibrations
In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter in which every atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In Einstein's model, each atom oscillates independently - a series of quantized states that are equally spaced for each oscillator. Einstein realized that obtaining an actual oscillation frequency would be difficult, but he still proposed this theory because it was a very clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve specific heat problems in classical mechanics. Peter Debye perfected this model.
The principle of existing action-angle variables and variables
Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to include many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum postulates of mechanics introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.
Einstein contributed to this development by connecting them with the argument 1898 Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien has shown that the adiabatic invariance hypothesis of the thermal equilibrium state allows all black curves at different temperatures to be derived from each other by a simple shift process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle implies that quantized quantities in mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identifies this adiabatic invariance as a classical action mechanical variable.
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In 1924, Einstein accepted a description of the statistical model of the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a method of calculation which assumes that light can be understood as an indistinguishable gaseous particle. Einstein notes that Bose statistics are applied to some of the atoms as well as the proposed light particles, and submit the translation of Bose's paper to Zeitschrift fÃÆ'¼r Physik . Einstein also published his own article explaining the model and its implications, among them the Bose-Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particles must appear at very low temperatures. New in 1995 the first condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST-JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Bose-Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behavior of each set of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project can be seen in the Einstein Archives at the Leiden University library.
wave-particle duality
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to the Second Class Technical Examiner in 1906, he did not give up on the academic world. In 1908, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern. In the ÃÆ'berber die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen ÃÆ'¼ber das Wesen und die Constitution der Strahlung "," on the quantization of light, and earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that energy quanta Max Planck must have a well-defined momentum and act in some ways as an independent particle, like a point. This paper introduces the concept of photon (though the name photons was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw the wave-particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his belief that physics requires a new and integrated foundation.
Energy point zero
In a series of completed works from 1911 to 1913, Planck redefined his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of ​​zero-point energy in his second "quantum theory". Immediately, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of a rotating diatomic molecule contains zero point energy, they then compare theoretically specific heat of hydrogen gas with experimental data. The numbers fit well. However, after publicizing the findings, they immediately withdrew their support, as they no longer believed in the truth of the idea of ​​zero-point energy.
Stimulate emissions
In 1917, at the peak of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift which proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, a physical process that enables masers and lasers. This article shows that the statistics of absorption and emission of light will only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the light emission into a mode with n photons will be increased statistically compared to the emission of light to empty mode. This paper is very influential in the subsequent development of quantum mechanics, since it is the first paper to show that atomic transition statistics have simple laws.
wave matter
Einstein discovered the work of Louis de Broglie and supported his ideas, which were initially accepted skeptically. In another major paper of this era, Einstein gave the wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton-Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper will inspire the work of SchrÃÆ'¶dinger in 1926.
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