The history of glass making can be traced back to 3500 BC Asia in Mesopotamia. However, they may have produced copies of second-class glass objects from Egypt, where this intricate craft originated. Other archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made on the north coast of Syria, Mesopotamia or Egypt. The earliest known glass objects, from the middle of the second millennium BC, are beads, probably originally created as accidental by-products of working metal (slags) or during the production of faience, the vitreous pre-glass material made by the process which is similar to glass. Glass products remain luxurious until a catastrophe beyond the late Bronze Age civilization makes glass stalled.
The development of glass technology in India may have started in 1730 BC. However, in ancient China, the manufacture of glass seems to have been late compared to ceramics and metal work. Of all the former archaeologists of the Roman Empire have discovered glass objects used in the context of domestic, industrial and cemetery. Anglo-Saxon glass has been found in England during the archaeological digs of settlements and burial sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period is used in the manufacture of various objects including ships, beads, windows and even used in jewelry.
Video History of glass
Origins
Natural glass, especially volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age communities around the world for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to their limited source area, is being traded extensively. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made on the north coast of Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt. Because of Egypt's favorable environment for conservation, the majority of the well-studied glass is found there, although some may have been imported. The earliest known glass objects, from the middle of the third millennium BC, are beads, probably originally created as accidental by-products of working metal (slags) or during the production of faience, the vitreous pre-glass material made by the process which is similar to glazing.
During the Late Bronze Age in Egypt (eg, Ahhotep "Treasure") and West Asia (eg Megiddo) there is rapid growth in glass-making technology. Archaeological discoveries from this period include colored glass ingots, ships (often dyed and shaped to imitate precious stone carvings in semi-precious stones) and beads everywhere. Alkali glass of Syria and Egypt is soda ash, sodium carbonate, which can be extracted from ash many plants, especially halophile sediment plants: (see saltwort). The new ships are 'core-shaped', produced by a round shaped glass rod shaped core of sand and clay over a metal rod, then combine it with recurrent heating.
The thin glass yarns of different colors made by mixing the oxides are then twisted into patterns, which can be drawn into the festoon by means of a metal rake. The vessel is then rolled smoothly ('plated') on top of the plate to press the decorative yarn into its body. Handles and feet are applied separately. The stem is then allowed to cool when the glass is slowly annealed and finally removed from the center of the vessel, after which the core material is scraped away. The form of glass for inlays is also often made in mold. Much of the initial glass production, however, depends on the milling technique borrowed from the working stone. This means that the glass is milled and carved in a cold state.
In the 15th century BC, extensive glass production took place in Western Asia, Crete and Egypt and Greek Greek terms , ku-wa-no-wo-ko-i , meaning "lapis lazuli and glass worker" (written in Linear syllabic script) is evidenced. It is estimated that the techniques and recipes required for the initial smelting of glasses of raw materials are the secret of heavily guarded technology for the country's great castle industry. Glass workers in other regions rely on imported glass that has been formed, often in the form of ingots like those found on Ulu Burun boats off the coast of modern Turkey.
Glass remains a luxury, and the disaster overtaking the Late Bronze Age Civilization seems to have made glass stalled. It picks up again on its former site, in Syria and Cyprus, in the 9th century BC, when a technique for making colorless glass was discovered. "Manual" glass making first back to ca. 650 BC. Instructions on how to make a glass are contained in a pointed tablet found in the Ashurbanipal Assyrian king's library. In Egypt glass-making did not live again until it was reintroduced in Ptolemaic Alexandria. The core vessels and beads are still widely produced, but other techniques come to the surface with experiments and technological advances. During the Hellenistic period many new techniques of glass production were introduced and glass began to be used to make larger pieces, especially table items. Techniques developed during this period include 'thick' (but not completely liquid) glass over molds to form food and 'millefiori' (meaning 'thousand flowers') technique, in which colored glass sticks are sliced ​​and slices arranged together and fused in a mold to create a mosaic-like effect. It was also during this period that colored or colored glass began to be appreciated and methods to achieve this effect were investigated more fully.
According to Pliny the Elder, Phoenician merchants were the first to discover the glass-making technique at the Belus River location. Georgius Agricola, at De re metallica , reports a traditional "discovery" story familiar with the type known:
"The tradition is that merchant ships are loaded with nitrum moored in this place, traders are preparing their food on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they use nitrum blobs from ships, which blend into and mix with beach sand, and flow the flow of new translucent liquid, and thus is the origin of glass. "
This account is more a reflection of Roman experience in glass production, however, as white silica sand from this area is used in the production of glass in the Roman Empire due to its high purity level. During the 1st century BC blowing glass was found on the coast of Syro-Judea, revolutionizing the industry. Glass vessels are now inexpensive compared to the pottery vessels. The growing use of glass products took place throughout the Roman world. Glass became Roman plastic, and the glass containers produced in Alexandria spread throughout the Roman Empire. With the discovery of clear glass (through the introduction of manganese dioxide), by glass blowers in Alexandria around 100 AD, the Romans began to use glass for architectural purposes. Cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical quality, begin to appear in Rome's most important buildings and the most luxurious villas in Herculaneum and Pompeii. Over the next 1,000 years, glass making and workmanship continued and spread through southern Europe and beyond.
Maps History of glass
Cultural history
India
The development of Indian glass technology in South Asia may have started in 1730 BC. This cultural evidence includes brown-brown glass beads along with piles of beads dating to that period, making it the earliest glass found from the Indus Valley location. Glass found from subsequent sites dating from 600-300 BC display common colors.
The evidence of Chalcolithic glass has been found in Hastinapura, India. Some of the texts that mention glass in India are Shatapatha Brahmin and Vinaya Pitaka . However, the first large amount of evidence, dating from the 3rd century BC, has been found from archaeological sites in Takshashila, Pakistan, with bracelets, beads, small vessels, and tiles found in numbers.
In the 1st century AD, glass was used for decoration and casing in South Asia. Contact with the Greco-Roman world added new techniques, and Indian artisans mastered several techniques of glass printing, decoration and coloration by subsequent ages. The Satavahana period in India also produces short cylinders of composite glass, including those featuring a lemon yellow matrix that is covered with green glass.
China
In Chinese history, glass plays a peripheral role in art and craft, when compared to ceramics and metal work. The limited distribution of archeology and the use of glass objects is evidence of material scarcity. The literary sources date the first making of glass until the 5th century. However, the earliest archaeological evidence for glass manufacture in China dates from the period of the Warring States (475 BC to 221 BC).
The Chinese learned to produce glass at a slower pace than with Mesopotamia, Egypt and India. The first imported glass objects reached China during the late Spring and Autumn periods - early periods of the War States (early 5th century BC), in the form of polychrome 'eye beads'. This import creates a boost for the production of original glass beads.
During the Han period (206 BC to 220 AD) the use of glass is diversified. The introduction of glass casting in this period encouraged the production of printed materials, such as bi discs and other ritual objects. Chinese glass objects from the Warring States and Han Dynasties period vary greatly in the chemical composition of imported glass objects. The glasses of this period contained high levels of barium oxide (BaO) and lead, which distinguishes it from silica-lime soda glasses in Western Asia and Mesopotamia. At the end of the Han Dynasty (AD 220), the tradition of barium-lead glasses declined, with glass production only continuing during the 4th and 5th centuries AD.
Roma
Roman glass production developed from the Hellenistic technical tradition, initially concentrated on the production of highly colored cast iron vessels. Glass objects have been found throughout the Roman Empire in the context of domestic, funerals, and industry. Glass is used primarily for ship production, although mosaic tiles and window glass are also produced.
However, during the 1st century AD, the industry experienced rapid technical growth that saw the introduction of blowing glass and the dominance of colored glasses or 'aqua'. The production of crude glass was conducted in geographically dispersed locations for glass work into finished ships, and by the end of the 1st century AD, large-scale manufacturing, especially in Alexandria, resulted in the formation of glass as a material commonly available in Rome. world.
Islamic World
Islamic glass continues the achievement of pre-Islamic culture, especially the Persian Sasanian glass. The Arab poet al-Buhturi (820-897) described the clarity of the glass, "The color hides the glass as if standing inside it without a container." In the 8th century, the J-Persian Arab chemist? Beer ibn Hayy? N (Geber) describes 46 recipes for producing colored glass at Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna ( Hidden Pearl Book ), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in the edition next from this book. In the 11th century, clear glass mirrors were being produced in Arabic Islamic Spain.
Medieval Europe
The Roman tradition of excellent glass making did not continue in the Middle Ages, and Anglo-Saxon glasses and other regional traditions were largely functional parts, mostly in the form of raw forest glass. The claws are popular as a relatively easy-to-make yet impressive vessel that exploits the unique potential of glass. Only at the end of the period, European glass ships once again became very good quality, imitating imported from the Islamic world.
Glass objects from the 7th and 8th centuries have been found on the island of Torcello near Venice. This formed an important relationship between Roman times and the importance of the city in material production. Around 1000 AD, important technical breakthroughs were made in Northern Europe when soda glasses, produced from white pebbles and burnt vegetation were replaced with glass made of much more available material: potas obtained from wood ash. From this point, northern glass differs significantly from that made in the Mediterranean region, where soda remains commonly used.
Until the 12th century, stained glass - glass dipped by metal or other impurities - was not widely used, but quickly became an important medium for Roman art and especially Gothic art. Almost all victims were in the church building, but also used in secular buildings. The 11th century saw the emergence in Germany new ways of making glass sheets by blowing the ball. The balls are swung to form a cylinder and then cut while still hot, after which the sheet is flattened. This technique was refined in the 13th century Venice. Crown glass process was used until the mid-19th century. In this process, the glassblower will rotate about 9 pounds (4 kg) of liquid glass at the end of the stem until it is flattened into a disk about 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk will then be cut into a panel. The domestic glass vessel in late North European medieval is known as Forest glass.
Anglo-Saxon World
Anglo-Saxon glass has been found in England during the archaeological digs of settlements and burial sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period is used in the manufacture of various objects including ships, beads, windows and even used in jewelry. In the 5th century CE with Roman departures from England, there were also major changes in the use of glass. Excavation of the Romano-English site has revealed a considerable amount of glass but, on the contrary, the number recovered from the 5th century and then the Anglo-Saxon site is very small.
The majority of the vessels are complete and the collection of beads comes from the excavation of the early Anglo-Saxon tombs, but changes in burial ceremonies at the end of the 7th century affected the glass recovery, as Anglo-Saxon Christians were buried with fewer graves, and glass was rarely found. From the end of the 7th century onwards, window glass was found more frequently. This is directly related to the introduction of Christianity and the construction of churches and monasteries. There are several sources of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical literature that mention the production and use of glass, although this is related to the window glass used in ecclesiastical buildings. Glass is also used by Anglo-Saxons in their jewelry, either as enamels or as cut glass insets.
Murano
The fancy 14th century Italian glassmaking center is the Murano island, which develops many new techniques and becomes a profitable export trading center in cutlery, mirrors and other items. What makes the Murano Venetian glass significantly different is that local quartz pebbles are virtually pure silica, and milled into fine fine sand combined with soda ash obtained from the Levant, of which Venice holds a single monopoly. The clearest and best glass is colored in two ways: first, the natural dye is ground and melted with glass. Many of these dyes still exist today; for a list of dyes, see below. Black glass is called obsidianus after an obsidian stone. The second method seems to produce a black glass which, when held to light, will show the true color that this glass will be given to another glass when used as a dye.
The Venetian ability to produce this superior glass shape results in trade advantages compared to other glass-producing fields. Murano's reputation as a center for glass-making was born when the Venetian Republic, fearing a fire burned most of the city's buildings, ordered glass makers to move their smelter to Murano in 1291. Murano glassmakers soon became the most prominent citizens on the island. Glassmakers are not allowed to leave the Republic. Many are taking risks and setting up glass stoves in the surrounding towns and as far as Britain and the Netherlands.
Bohemia
Bohemian glass, or Bohemian crystal, is a decorative glass produced in the Bohemian and Silesian regions, now in the current state of the Czech Republic, since the 13th century. The oldest archaeological excavation of the current glass-making site is around 1250 and is located in the Lusatian Mountains in North Bohemia. Most of the famous glass-making sites of all time are Skalice (German: Langenau ), KamenickÃÆ'½? Enov (German: SteinschÃÆ'¶nau ) and NovÃÆ'½ Bor (German: Haida ). Both NovÃÆ'½ Bor and KamenickÃÆ'½? Enov has their own Glass Museum with many dating items dating back to about 1600. It was especially remarkable in the manufacture of glass in the high Baroque style from 1685 to 1750. In the 17th century, Caspar Lehmann, the gem cutters to Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, tailored to the glass of gem engraving techniques with copper and bronze wheels.
Modern glass production
New process
A very important advance in glass making is the technique of adding lead oxide to liquid glass; this improves the appearance of glass and makes it easier to melt using marine coal as a fuel stove. This technique also increases the "working period" of glass, making it easier to manipulate. This process was first discovered by George Ravenscroft in 1674, which was the first company to produce clear, clear crystal glass on an industrial scale. Ravenscroft has the cultural and financial resources needed to revolutionize the glass trade, which allowed the British to overtake Venice as the center of the glass industry in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Looking to find an alternative to Venetian cristallo , he uses a flint as a source of silica, but his glasses tend to harden, developing a network of tiny cracks that destroy transparency. This is ultimately overcome by replacing some of the potash fluxes with lead oxide into the melt.
He was granted a patent patent in 1673, where production and repair moved from a greenhouse in Savoy into the exile of Henley-on-Thames.
In 1696, after the patent ended, twenty-seven greenhouses in England produced stone glass and exported throughout Europe with such success; in 1746, the British Government imposed a favorable tax. Rather than drastically reducing the lead content of their glasses, manufacturers respond by creating a highly decorated, smaller, smoother, often with hollow bar shapes, known to today's collectors as a glass cigarette. The British glassmaking industry was able to take off with tax revocation in 1845.
Proof of use of broken glass plate methods dates back to 1620 in London and is used for mirrors and trainer plates. Louis Lucas de Nehou and A. Thevart perfected the process of casting Polished glass plate in 1688 in France. Prior to this invention, the mirror plate, made of blown "sheet" glass, was of limited size. The de Nehou process for rolling the molten glass poured over the iron table allows the manufacture of a very large plate. This method of production was adopted by the British in 1773 at Ravenhead. The polishing process was industrialized around 1800 with the adoption of a steam engine for grinding and polishing of cast glass.
Industrial production
The use of glass as a building material was heralded by The Crystal Palace of 1851, built by Joseph Paxton to host the Great Exhibition. Paxton's revolutionary new buildings inspire the public use of glass as a material for domestic architecture and horticulture. In 1832, the British Crown Glass Company (later Chance Brothers) became the first company to adopt a cylindrical method for producing glass sheets with the expertise of Georges Bontemps, a famous French glass maker. The glass is produced by blowing a long cylinder of glass, which is then cut along a length and then flattened onto a cast iron table, before annealing. Plate glass involves glass that is placed onto a cast iron bed, where it is rolled into a sheet with an iron roller. The sheet, still soft, is pushed into the open mouth of an annealing tunnel or a temperature controlled oven called a lehr, down brought by a roller system. James Hartley introduced the Rolling Plate method in 1847. This allows a ribbed finish and is often used for wide glass roofs such as in railway stations.
Initial progress in the manufacture of automatic glass was patented in 1848 by engineer Henry Bessemer. The system produces a continuous flat glass tape by forming a ribbon between rollers. This is an expensive process, because the glass surface requires polishing and then left by its sponsor, Robert Lucas Chance of Chance Brothers, as unfeasible. Bessemer also introduced the early form of "Float Glass" in 1843, which involved pouring glasses into a liquid can.
In 1887, the mass production of glass was developed by the Ashley company in Castleford, Yorkshire. This semi-automated process uses a machine capable of producing 200 standard bottles per hour, several times faster than traditional manufacturing methods. Chance Brothers also introduced a revolved patterned glass method machine in 1888.
In 1898, Pilkington invented the Wired Cast glass, where glass incorporates a strong steel wire mesh for safety and security. This is generally given a misnomer "Georgian Wired Glass" but a very post-dated Georgian era. The Drawn Cylinder Machine technique is found in the USA and is the first mechanical method for drawing window glass. It was produced under license in the UK by Pilkington from 1910 onwards.
In 1938, the polish plate process was enhanced by Pilkington that incorporated a dual milling process to provide quality improvements to the end result. Between 1953 and 1957, Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of England Pilkington Brothers developed a revolutionary float glass process, the first successful commercial application to form a continuous glass band using a liquid liquid bath where liquid glass flows unimpeded under the influence of gravity. This method gives a uniform thickness sheet and a very flat surface. Modern windows are made of float glass. Most float glass is glass-lime soda, but relatively small amounts of specialty borosilicates and flat panel display glass are also manufactured using a float glass process. The success of this process lies in the careful balance of the volume of glass put into the bath, where it is leveled by its own weight. The full-scale sale of float glass was first achieved in 1960.
See also
- Preparation of glass in the United States
Note
References
Further reading
- Carboni, Stefano; Whitehouse, David (2001). Glass from the sultans. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN: 0870999869.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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