The economy of the ancient Tamil state (Sangam era: 200 BC - AD 200) describes the ancient economy of a region in southern India largely covering present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala countries. The main economic activities are agriculture, weaving, pearl fishery, manufacturing and construction. Rice is the most important crop; it is a staple food and served as an inland trading tool. Pepper, millet, gram and sugar cane is another plant that is usually grown. Madurai and Urayur are important centers for the textile industry; Korkai is a pearl trading center. Industrial activities are growing.
Inland trade is primarily through barter in busy market places by traders associations and commercial lending institutions. Merchants form associations that operate independently, without any interference from the state. People from the ancient Tamil state were involved in rapid foreign trade with Rome; trade peaked after the discovery of a direct route to merchant ships between the Tamilakam and Egypt, taking advantage of the monsoon wind. Pepper, pearl, ivory, textiles and gold jewelry are exported from Tamilakam, and the main imports are luxury items such as glass, corals, grapes, and topaz. Foreign trade brings a large number of internationally converted Roman currencies.
The state plays an important role in building and maintaining infrastructure such as roads and ports - funded through taxation - to meet the needs of economic and social activities. Wealth is shared equally among people, giving rise to different classes of economy.
Video Economy of ancient Tamil country
Agriculture
Agriculture is the main occupation of the ancient and the most respected Tamil people. Farmers are aware of different soil types, best crops to grow and a variety of irrigation systems suitable for a particular region. In the five geographical divisions of the Tamil state in the Sangam literature, the Marutam region is the most suitable for cultivation, having the most fertile land. The soil is classified, according to its fertility, such as Embroidery (fertile soil), Pinpulam (dry land), Vanpulam (hard soil) and Kalarnilam or Uvarnilam (salt soil). Embroidery produces rich yield on various plants, but Pinpulam is cultivated only with dry plants due to limited irrigation facilities. Results from Vanpulam are limited, while Kalarnilam is not feasible for cultivation. Some well-known soil types are alluvial soil, red soil, black soil, laterite soil and sandy soil.
Tamil people cultivate rice, sugar cane, millet, pepper, various nuts, coconut, beans, cotton, plantain, tamarind and sandalwood. Rice is the main crop, with different varieties grown in Marutam wetlands, such as Vennel , Sennel , Pudunel , Aivananel and Torch . Farmers live in groves of trees close to farmland and each house has jack, coconut, palm, areca and plantain trees. Farmers plant turmeric in front of their houses and put flower gardens among the houses. Farmers believe that plowing, cultivating, weeding, irrigation and crop protection should be done in accordance with specific methods to obtain good results. The various tools needed for agriculture, from plowing to harvest, are produced. The basic tool is the plow which is also known as meli , nanchil and kalappai . Palliyadutal refers to the process of removing weeds using a toothed tool attached to the board and drawn by the ox. Lower class farmers use stone sling devices to frighten animals and birds away from standing plants. Sickle is used to harvest mature rice. Because the rivers in the area are not enduring, some irrigation techniques are developed to ensure adequate and sustainable water supply. Farmers use a buffalo-driven device called Valuer to save water from deep wells and manual settings called Erram , for shallow wells. Tanks, lakes and dams are used as water and water storage systems regulated using sluices and shutters. Kallanai, a dam built on the Kaveri river during this period, is one of the oldest water regulatory structures in the world. The irrigation surface, sprinkler mechanism and drip irrigation methods are followed to prevent wastage of water.
Most of the farmers cultivate their own land and are known by different names such as Mallar, Ulutunbar, Yerinvalnar, Vellalar, Karalar and Kalamar . There are also absent landlords who are mostly brahmans and poets who have received land donations from kings and who make this donation to the farmers. Sometimes independent laborers, known as Adiyor, are employed for certain tasks. Landlords and farmers pay taxes on land and its products - land tax known as Irai or Karai and the tax on production is called Vari . One-sixth of the proceeds are collected as taxes. Taxes are collected by an income official known as Variety and Kavidi , assisted by an accountant called Ayakanakkar . For survey and tax purposes, various measurements are used to measure land and production. Many small soils are known as Ma and larger channels as Veli . Production is measured using cubic sizes such as Tuni , Nali , Cher and Kalam and weight measurements such as Tulam and Kalanju .
Maps Economy of ancient Tamil country
Industry
During the Sangam period, craft and trade in work were considered secondary to agriculture. The carpenters who make woodwork and the blacksmiths work in simple workshops. Weaving, pearl fishing, smithy and ship building are the leading industries of ancient Tamilakam. Spinning and weaving is a source of income for craftsmen; The weave is practiced part-time by farmers in rural areas. Madurai and Urayur are important industrial centers, known for their cotton textiles. The muslin fabric is woven with fine floral works with different colors. Silk fabrics are made with threads collected with small knots at the ends. Clothing embroidered for the nobles and nobles who are the main customers. Materials are often colored; blue dye for the waist cloth is the preferred color. In addition to silk and cotton fabrics, fabrics made of wood fibers called Sirai Maravuri and Naarmadi are used by the priestly class. Manufacturers of fabric weave long pieces of fabric and send it to dealers. The textile merchants then trim a little of the required length, called aruvai or tuni , at the time of sale. Therefore, the merchants are called aruvai vanigar and the area where they live aruvai vidi . Tailors, called tunnagarar in Madurai and other big cities, sewn clothes.
Fishing pearls grow during Sangam's age. The port city of Pandyan in Korkai is a pearl trading center. Written records from Greek and Egyptian sailors provide details about pearl fisheries off the coast of Pandyan. According to one report, the fishermen who dove into the sea avoid attacks from the shark by bringing the right conch shell and blowing the shell. Inmates are used as pearl divers in Korkai. Periplus mentions that "The lower pearls of the Indian species are exported in large quantities from Martens Apologas and Omana". Pearls are woven together with muslin fabric before being exported and are the most expensive products imported by Rome from India. Pearls of the Pandyan kingdom are also in demand in the kingdom of Northern India. Some Vedic mantras refer to the widespread use of pearls, poetically illustrating that royal and horse chariots are adorned with pearls. The use of pearls is so great that the supply of pearls from the Ganges River can not meet the demand.
The blacksmith, who works at Panikkalari (literally: the workplace), plays an important role in the lives of the ancient Tamil people. Some of the important items produced by the blacksmith are weapons of war, tools such as plows, housewares and iron wheels. They use an inflatable pipe or a pair of bellows (a constipate ) to light a fire used for smelting and welding. There are not many blacksmith shops in the countryside. Blacksmiths too much work because they have to serve the needs of neighboring villages. Shipbuilding is an indigenous industry of Tamilakam. Ships of various sizes, from small catamarans (timber tied together) to large ships, navigable Tamil ports. Among the smaller handicrafts are the ambi and padagu used as the ferry to cross the river and cucumbers , a fishing boat. Pahri , Odam , Toni , Teppam , and Navai is a smaller craft. The big ship, called Kappal , has a pole ( Paaymaram ) and a screen ( Paay ).
Other industries are carpentry, fishery, salt-making, forestry, earthenware, rope-making, chopping-cutting, jewel cutting, leather-making for war weapons, jewelry making, jaggery production, and construction of temples, and other objects related religion such as car and picture procession. Basket made of woven as it contains dry grains and other edible items is also constructed.
Inland trade
The ancient Tamil people were active traders in various commodities, both domestically and abroad. The kingdoms of northern India look for pearls, cotton, and seashells from Tamilakam instead of wool, leather and horses. The most local trade is in food products - agricultural products equipped with products from hunters, fishermen and shepherds who are traded in meat, fish and dairy products. In addition, people buy other items such as items for personal hygiene, jewelry and transportation. Trading transactions take place in a busy market. Merchants use a variety of sales modes: peddle their goods door to door, set up shop in a busy market place or place themselves in royal households. Sellers of fish, salt and grains hawk their goods, textile dealers sell fabrics from their stores in urban markets and goldsmiths, peddlers and sandalwood and ivory sellers patronize the noble wards. Merchants deal with shells and ivory.
Most trades are done by bartering. Rice is the most commonly accepted exchange medium, followed by purified salt. Honey and roots are exchanged for liver and fish oil, while sugar cane and rice flakes are traded for venison and toddlers. The poetry in Purananuru describes the prosperous house in the land of Pandya equipped with rice fields that housewives have been exchanged for grams and fish. Craftsmen and professionals trade their services for goods. The amount is measured by weighing the equilibrium, called Tulakkol named Tulam , the standard weight. The smooth balance made of ivory is used by the goldsmith for the size of Urai , Nali and Ma . A different type of barter involving a deferred exchange is known as Kuri edirppai - this involves taking a loan for a fixed quantity of a commodity to be repaid the same amount of the same commodity in the future. Since barter is prevalent locally, coins are used almost exclusively for foreign trade.
Market
Sangam works like Maduraikkanci and Pattinappalai gives a detailed description of the market in the big cities. Market, or angadi , located in the city center. It has two adjacent parts: the morning baza ( nalangadi ) and the night market ( allangadi ). The Madurai market is cosmopolitan with people of different ethnicities and languages ​​clustered in shops. Foreign traders and merchants come to Madurai from the northern kingdom like Kalinga to sell wholesale. According to Mathuraikkani, large markets are held in large squares and items sold including wreaths, fragrant pastes, coats with metallic belts, leather sandals, weapons, shields, carts, carts and ornamental carriage stairs. Garment shops sell clothes of various colors and patterns made of cotton, silk or wool, with items neatly arranged in rows. In the street of wheat merchants, sacks of pepper and sixteen kinds of grains (including rice, millet, gram, peas and sesame seeds) are stacked beside it. The jewelry sellers, who do business from a separate street, sell valuables like diamonds, pearls, emeralds, rubies, sapphires, topaz, coral beads, and various kinds of gold.
Vanchi, the capital of Cheras, is a typical fortified city, with two divisions within the fortress - Puranakar and Akanakar . Puranakar is an outer city adjacent to the walls of the fort and occupied by soldiers. The Akanakar, the inner city, including the king's palace and officer's place. The city market is located between these two divisions; craftsmen and merchants live close to the market. Kaveripumpattinam, the port city of Chola, has a market in a central open area close to two major suburbs - Maruvurpakkam and Pattinapakkam . Maruvurpakkam is adjacent to the sea where fishermen and foreign traders live. The main streets of the market meet in the center where there is a temple dedicated to the local protector god of the city.
The Kaveripumpattinam market is similar to the one in Madurai. A large number of dyes, fragrant powder, flowers, textiles, salt, fish, and sheep are sold. Interest is in great demand, especially during festivals such as Indira vizha . Near the bazaar there is a shed with a little ventilation located underground. As merchants from various places crowd the bazaar, every package for sale has the name and details of the owner written on it. Simple ads are used to show items available in different locations.
Mercantile Organization
There are different types of merchants operating in the ancient Tamil market, which gave rise to a wealth-based class distinction between them. Lower hierarchy traders have two types: street vendors selling goods they produce themselves and retailers selling goods produced by others. Circling traders are found in rural and urban markets, but retailers are concentrated in cities. In rural markets, salt and grain traders usually produce goods, transport them and sell them directly to consumers. Salt traders, known as umanar , travel with their families on carts. In cities, artisans such as blacksmiths and oil sellers sell their products directly to consumers. Most retailers operate in the textile industry. Textile traders ( aruvai vanigar ) buy their products from weavers ( kaarugar ) and resell them to consumers. Merchants who sell agricultural produce in cities are also retailers. At the top end of the merchant hierarchy, it is the wealthy merchants who participate in the export trade. There are three classes between them - ippar , kavippar and perunkudi - based on the extent of their wealth; perunkudi is the richest class. The foreign merchants, especially the Romans, also do business in the Tamil market - not only in port cities, but in inland cities like Madurai, where they exchange indigenous goods for their offerings. Other merchant categories are intermediaries or brokers, who act as information channels and offer their services primarily to foreign traders.
Merchants organize themselves into groups called Sattu or Nikamam . The stone inscription in Mangulam (circa 200 BC) and the pottery inscription found at Kodumanal refer to the merchant guild as nikamam and the union members as nikamattor . These findings suggest that merchant guilds were established in some industrial and commercial centers of the ancient Tamil state. Many of these merchant associations act in unity in their public activities. They are autonomous, meaning that they enjoy freedom from state interference but also suffer from lack of state support. Traders are expected to abide by a code of ethics, which: "Refuse to take more than they should and never give to others because of them." Therefore, they run their business by publicly announcing the benefits they are going to, known as Utiyam . The Tamilakam trading community is aware of basic banking operations. Borrowing through homes specializing in monetary transactions and fixation rates is common. This, obviously, is demanded by extensive foreign trade. Accountants are requested because of monetary transactions and considerable trading activity. The merchant groups of Madurai and Karur make wakaf, or donations, as evidenced by the inscriptions found in Alagarmalai (1st century BC) and Pugalur (circa 3rd century AD). These inscriptions also mention that various commodities traded by such traders include cloth, salt, oil, plowshares, sugar and gold.
International trade
The economic prosperity of Tamil people depends on foreign trade. Literary, archaeological and numismatic sources confirm the trade relations between Tamilakam and Rome, where spices and pearls from India are in great demand. With Augustus's accession to 27 BC, trade between Tamilakam and Rome received a tremendous boost and culminated in the time of Nero's death in 68 CE. At that point, trading declined until Caracalla's death (217 CE), after which it almost stopped. It was revived again under the Byzantine emperor. Under the early Roman emperors, there was a great demand for luxury goods, especially beryl. Most of the luxury items mentioned by the Roman authors came from Tamilakam. In periods of decline, cotton and industrial products were still imported by Rome. Exports from Tamil countries include pepper, pearl, ivory, textiles and gold ornaments, while imports of luxury items such as glass, corals, grapes and topazs. The government provides essential infrastructure such as a good harbor, lighthouse, and warehouse to promote foreign trade.
Trading route
The trade routes taken by ship from Rome to Tamilakam have been described in detail by the authors, such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder. Roman and Arab sailors are aware of the existence of monsoon winds that blow in the Indian Ocean on a seasonal basis. A Roman captain named Hippalus first sailed a direct route from Rome to India, using a monsoon wind. His method was then repaired by merchants who shortened travel by sailing east from the port of Cana or Cape Guardafui, finding that in this way it was possible to go directly from Rome to Tamilakam. Strabo writes that every year, around the summer solstice, a fleet of one hundred and twenty ships sailed from Myos Hormos, an Egyptian port on the Red Sea, and headed for India. With the help of the monsoon wind, the journey takes forty days to reach the port of Tamilakam or Ceylon. Pliny writes that if the rainy season blows regularly, it's a forty-day trip to Muziris from Ocelis located at the entrance to the Red Sea from the south. He writes that passengers prefer to start in Bacare (Vaikkarai) in Pandya state, rather than Muziris, which is full of pirates. The ships returned from Tamilakam carrying rich goods transported by camel train from the Red Sea to the Nile, then up the river to Alexandria, finally reaching the capital of the Roman empire. The evidence of Tamil trade presence in Egypt is seen in the form of Tamil inscriptions on pottery at the Red Sea port.
Import and export
Bonds and fine jewelry, especially beryl ( vaiduriyam ) and pearls are exported from Tamilakam for personal jewelry. Drugs, herbs and spices and ginger crape and other cosmetics produce high prices. Even greater is the demand for pepper which, according to Pliny, is sold at the price of 15 denarii (silver pieces) a pound. Sapphire, called kurundham in Tamil, and various ruby ​​â € <â €
The growing trade with the Romans had a major impact on the economy of the ancient Tamil state and the royal treasury and export merchants garnered a large number of Roman coins. Pliny wrote that India, China, and Arabia among them absorbed a hundred million sesterces per year from Rome. This amount is calculated by Mommsen to represent 1,100,000 pounds, almost half of which goes to India, bigger than South India.
Coins hoarded by early Roman emperors from Augustus to Nero have been found around the South Indian beryl mines that produce the best and most pure beryl in the world. In fifty-five different locations, mostly in the districts of Madurai and Coimbatore, these coins have been excavated; the number of gold coins found has been described as a quantity of five cold loads. The number of silver coins has been described as "a lot in pots", "about 500 in pots of ground", "invention of 163 coins", "a few thousand is enough to fill five or six sizes of Madras". The coins of all Roman emperors from Augustus (27 BC) until Alexander Severus (235 CE)) have been found, covering a period of nearly three centuries. By far the greatest number of these Roman coins belongs to the administrations of Augustus and Tiberius. After 235 AD, for the next hundred years, no dated coins, indicating a temporary suspension of trade between Rome and South India. This could be due to internal insurrections and external attacks suffered by the Roman Empire during that period. When good order and good governance was restored in Rome, trade with the Tamilakam was revived, as shown by the discovery of increasing coins from this period. The Zeno coins had been traced to the end of the Roman Empire. Scholars believe there is a Roman settlement near Madurai and that small copper coins with the head of the Roman Emperor on them may have been printed locally.
Country role
The role of the state in trade is related to two aspects: first, to provide adequate infrastructure necessary to maintain trade and secondly, to organize efficient administrative apparatus for taxation.
During the Sangam period, major trade routes, such as those that cross the Western Ghats, pass through dense forests. It is the duty of the state to protect caravan traders on this trade route from robbers and wildlife. The main street, known as Peruvali , was built that links the far parts of the country. These streets are as important to the army as they are to the merchants. Commodities such as salt must be transported over long distances, such as from the seashore to the inland villages. The state also builds and expands infrastructure for shipping such as ports, lighthouses and warehouses near the ports to promote foreign trade. Several ports are built on the east and west coast of Tamilakam. Kaveripumpattinam (also known as Puhar ) is Chola's main port; Their other ports are Nagapattinam, Marakkanam and Arikamedu, all on the east coast. Pandyas has developed Korkai, Saliyur, Kayal, Marungurpattinam (now Alagankulam) and Kumari (now Kanyakumari) as their trading hub along the east coast, while Niranam and Vilinam are their west coast ports. Muchiri, Tondi, Marandai, Naravu, Varkkalai and Porkad are the main port of Cheras, all on the west coast.
To collect revenues from trade, the state set up customs checkpoints ( sungachavadi ) along highways and ports. At the port, duties are collected on inland goods, before being exported, and on overseas goods destined for local markets, stamped with official stamps before being allowed into the country. The volume of trade in port cities is high enough to ensure a large workforce to monitor and assess goods. The state issued a license to a liquor store, which was asked to fly a license flag outside their premises. Flags are used by foreign merchants as well, to indicate the nature of the merchandise they sell. The state also keeps a record of the weight and quantity of all goods sold by merchants. One important aspect of state intervention in commerce is that it strengthens the authority of the authorities.
Personal Wealth
How wealth is valued varies from one community to another. The farmer counts the number of plows owned and among the pastoral people is the number of cows. Wealth is distributed unevenly among people, leading to different economic classes - the rich, the poor and the middle class. The nobles, state officials, export merchants, and court poets form the rich class. Most farmers and inland traders comprise the middle class. The lowest class consists of laborers and nomads. It is believed that this division of human economy is the result of a divine arrangement; the poor are made to feel that their sad condition is due to their past sins, tivinai , and inevitably. The extreme prosperity of some people and the abject poverty of some others is clearly illustrated in contemporary literature. Most wealthy people spend some of their wealth for charity, the king's philanthropy becomes an example. It is estimated that one needs to accumulate wealth to make a contribution and perform the right duty. Occasionally, people from households make the long journey north of Venkata Hill or the northern boundary of Tamilakam, to gain wealth. One of the areas they might visit is the Mysore region, where the gold mines began to be famous. FR Allchin, who has discussed the gold mining heritage in the Deccan, says that the high mining period in South India is the last century of the pre-Christian era and the first two centuries of the Christian era, coinciding with the Sangam period.
Source
The most important source of ancient Tamil history is the collection of Tamil poetry, called the Sangam literature, dated between the last centuries of the pre-Christian era and the early centuries of the Christian era. It consists of 2381 known poems, totaling more than 50,000 lines, written by 473 poets. Each poem is included in one of two types: Akam (inside) and Puram (outside). The poems deal with inner emotions such as love, while poetry purely relates to external experiences such as society, culture and war. These poems contain a description of various aspects of life in ancient Tamil countries. The Maduraikkanci by Mankudi Maruthanaar and Netunalvatai by Nakkirar contained a detailed explanation of the Pandyan capital, Madurai, the royal court and the power of Nedunj-Cheliyan, winner of the Talaialanganam battles. The Purananuru and Agananuru collection contains poems sung in praise of various kings and poems composed by the kings themselves. The Pathirruppaththu gave the pedigree of two collateral lines from Cheras and described Chera country. The Pattinappaalai talks about the richness of the Chola harbor town of Kaveripumpattinam and the city's economic activities. The historical value of the Sangam poem has been critically analyzed by experts in the 19th and 20th centuries. Historians agree that the description of society, culture, and economy in poetry is authentic, for most: many leading scholars including Sivaraja Pillay, Kanakasabhai, K.A.N Sastri and George Hart have used information from these poems to portray the ancient Tamil society. Herman Tieken, a Dutch scholar, has expressed his disagreement to do so, arguing that the poems were set up later in the 8-9th century century. The Tieken methodology and its conclusions about the date of Sangam poetry have been criticized by other scholars.
Among the literary sources in other languages, the most informative are the Greek and Roman accounts of maritime trade between the Roman empire and the Tamilakam kingdoms. Strabo and Pliny the Elder provide detailed trading routes between the Red Sea coast and the west coast of South India. Strabo (1st century BC) mentions the embassies sent by Pandyas to Augustus's palace, along with a description of the ambassadors. Pliny (c.77 CE) speaks of different items imported by the Romans from India and complains about the financial leaks caused by them. He also referred to many ports of Tamil in his The Natural History . The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c.60-100 CE) an anonymous work, provides a complicated description of the Tamil state and the wealth of the 'Pandian Kingdom'.
Archaeological excavations at many sites in Tamil Nadu including Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Kaveripumpattinam and Alagankulam, have produced various artifacts belonging to the Sangam era, such as various types of pottery and other items including black and red goods, rouletted articles, Russet sawdust, brick walls , ring wells, holes, industrial goods, and the remains of seeds and shells. Many of the pottery pots contain Tamil-Brahmika inscriptions on them, which have provided additional evidence for archaeologists to date them. Archaeologists agree that the activities illustrated well in this material note are trade, hunting, agriculture, and handicrafts. These excavations have provided evidence of major economic activity mentioned in Sangam literature. Remnants of irrigation structures such as reservoirs and ring wells and charred seed remains prove the cultivation of various crop varieties and knowledge of various agricultural techniques. Whorls spinning, cotton seeds, remnants of woven cotton fabrics and dyeing barrels provide evidence for the activities of the textile industry. Metallurgy has been supported by the invention of ancient blast furnaces, together with its base and walls, grounding, slag, and crucibles. Remnants show that, in addition to iron, the blacksmith may have worked with steel, tin, copper and bronze. Kodumanal excavations found some jewelery and semi-precious stones at various stages of manufacture, showing that they were produced locally. The remnants of import and export articles taken from Arikamedu show the important role he played as an Indo-Roman trading station. Building construction, pearl fishing and painting are other activities that have been supported by the findings of this excavation.
The inscriptions are another source to infer the ancient Tamil history: mostly written in Tamil-Brahmi script and found in stone or pottery. The inscriptions have been used to corroborate some of the details given by the Sangam literature. The cave inscriptions are found in places like Mangulam and Alagarmalai near Madurai, Edakal hills in Kerala and Jambai villages in the Villupuram district record various donations made by kings and chiefs. Brief explanations of various aspects of Sangam society such as agriculture, commerce, commodities, occupation and city names are found in this inscription. Some of the coins issued by the Tamil kings of this day have been found from the bottom of the river and the city center of their kingdom. Most of them carry the corresponding dynasty symbols, like the bow and arrows of Cheras; some of which contain portraits and written legends. Numismatists have used these coins to establish the existence of the Tamil kingdom during the age of Sangam and associate the kings mentioned in the legend for a certain period. A large number of Roman coins have been found in the districts of Coimbatore and Madurai, providing more evidence for the rapid maritime trade between Rome and Tamilakam.
See also
- Tamil
- Tamil people
- Tamil Culture
- Tamil Cuisine
Note
References
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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