Anglo-Saxon glass

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Anglo-Saxon glass has been found in England during the archaeological digs of settlements and burial sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period is used in the manufacture of various objects including ships, beads, windows and even used in jewelry. In the 5th century CE with Roman departures from England, there were also major changes in the use of glass. Excavation of the Romano-English site has revealed a considerable amount of glass but, on the contrary, the number recovered from the 5th century and then the Anglo-Saxon site is very small.

The majority of the vessels are complete and the collection of beads comes from the excavation of the early Anglo-Saxon tombs, but changes in burial ceremonies at the end of the 7th century affected the glass recovery, as Anglo-Saxon Christians were buried with fewer graves, and glass was rarely found. From the end of the 7th century onwards, window glass was found more frequently. This is directly related to the introduction of Christianity and the construction of churches and monasteries. There are several sources of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical literature that mention the production and use of glass, although this is related to the window glass used in ecclesiastical buildings. Glass is also used by Anglo-Saxons in their jewelry, either as enamels or as cut glass insets.

Video Anglo-Saxon glass

Making glass

A clear distinction between glass and glass making work should be done. Making glass is the production of raw glass from raw materials. Glass working on the other hand refers to the processing of raw glass or recycled glass to create new glass objects, although this may occur in the same location as glass making, but can also occur elsewhere.

Glass making

Glass consists of four main components; traces, alkali fluxes, stabilizers and dyes/opacities.

• Former : Silica , which in the Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods was added in sand.
• Alkaline flux : Soda or potassium . Roman sources, in addition to the chemical analysis of glass dating to the Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods, show that natron minerals are used as fluxes. Pliny also stated that the preferred natron source for glassmaking comes from Egypt. At the end of the first millennium AD a new source of flux is being used, wood ash, which is a source of potassium.
• Stabilizer : Lime or magnesia . In Anglo-Saxon glass, the main stabilizer is chalk. This may be deliberately added to the glass batch, but may be just a component of the sand used. The Roman writer Pliny states that the sand of the Belus River is perfect for glass making, it is calcareous sand, rich in sea shells, and therefore lime.
• Colourants/Opacifiers : This can be naturally present in the glass due to impurities in raw materials, eg. in the case of green/blue-green glass produced from the presence of iron in the sand. Other dyes may be a deliberate addition to the molten glass of a small amount of mineral-rich material or in some cases slags from the process of metalworking. The elements in ancient glass that affect their appearance are especially iron, manganese, cobalt, copper, tin and antimony. The presence or absence of lead is also important, while it does not produce the color itself (except in the form of tin lead oxide or lead-antimony oxide) can change the color of other colourants. Additionally when added to the opaque glass it ensures that the colourants are formed in a controlled and distributed manner evenly. Opacity in glass can be caused by a number of factors; color intensity, bubbles in glass or inclusion of opacifying agents, such as lead (SnO ₂ & amp; PbSnO ₃ ) and antimony (Ca ₂ Sb < sub> 2 O ₇ & amp; CaSb ₂ 6 & amp; Pb ₂ Sb ₂ O ₇ ).

The main types of glass found in the Anglo-Saxon period are soda-lime-silica glass, continuing the Roman tradition in producing glass. There is little evidence for the manufacture of glass from raw materials in Roman Britain and even less evidence in Anglo-Saxon England. It is almost impossible to move natron from the Middle East to England. Therefore, it is far more likely, that in Roman times, glass was being produced near the raw material and then the crumpled glass cups were transported. Other sources of glass are cullet, broken or crushed glass that is recycled. Recycling was done throughout the Roman period, and the large glass shards deposited at Winchester and Hamwic showed glass also recycled in the Anglo-Saxon period. It is possible that by recycling the glass in this way it is possible to meet the demand for new unswept glass glass products to be incorporated into the system. Additional cullet may also have been collected from the ruined abandoned Romano-English site. At the end of the 7th-8th century with the construction of many ecclesiastical buildings and large windows, the demand for glass grew. At this time the political problems in the Delta-Wadi Natrun region caused a natron deficiency in the Middle East where raw cups were produced. This may cause glassmakers to experiment with new fluxes, which ultimately leads to the introduction of wooden ash sunglasses using potash as the main alkaline flux, which is more readily available.

Table above: Glass composition of 1 millennium AD. Adapted from the data published in Sanderson, Hunter, and Warren's analysis of the first Millenium Mas glass (top) and data published by the Freestone study on the origin of ancient glass through composition analysis (below). HIMT stands for high iron, manganese and titanium glass, nm not to be measured and where there is only trace or value below the analytical detection limit of equipment & lt; 0.1 is used.

Glass works

The Anglo-Saxon site excavation has produced some evidence for limited glass that works in the form of a melting cup to melt glass, glass debris and furnaces, although, to date, no furnaces have been found associated with crucibles or glass work debris , or vice versa. All of the glass work stoves that have been found are linked to ecclesiastical sites such as monasteries. This suggests that these centers sponsor the majority of glass working in Anglo-Saxon Britain, perhaps to primarily work on making glass windows for church buildings. Documentary sources encourage glass workers to travel around the country, produce glasses on demand, perhaps reusing glass shards, rather than one center producing glass objects that then need to be transported. Although we can identify the production process, it is still unknown how much glass works in the Anglo-Saxon period and how widespread it is. The absence of evidence is often used to suggest that the majority of glass is imported from the continent. But this seems unlikely as there are a limited number of glass-boat-making sites found elsewhere in Europe and some Anglo-Saxon glass ships are unique to the UK, suggesting the existence of several manufacturing centers, perhaps in Kent. Instead of the number of glasswork sites reflecting not only the fragile nature of Anglo-Saxon archaeological records but also the properties of glass, which can be melted and reused.

Maps Anglo-Saxon glass

Glass vessels

Most of the complete ships come from the early Anglo-Saxon cemetery, allowing the same glass vessel to be grouped together creating typology. Recent excavations of contemporary settlements have revealed fragments of the same types of ships, indicating there is little, if any, difference between domestic glass and rituals that are kept in the cemetery. There is a significant difference between the shape of the Roman and Anglo-Saxon vessels, and the glass working technique becomes more limited. Some Anglo-Saxon forms can be classified as tableware, since this term implies to some extent that the vessel can be mounted on a flat surface. The shapes used primarily have round or spiky chunks, or when the base is too heavy and unstable. This means that the ships are held in hand until the drink is finished. The evidence for glass vessels was patchier in the 8th century, as the number of complete blood vessels found decreased. This is directly related to the introduction of Christianity and changes in funerals.

The first typology for the Anglo-Saxon glass vessel was made by Dr. Donald B. Harden in 1956, later revised in 1978. The names set by Harden have now become familiar with the usage, and Professor Vera Evison's typology retains many categories while adding several new types, some of the newly dug ships which can not be incorporated into Harden's typology.

The chemical composition of the Anglo-Saxon glass vessel is very similar to that of late Roman glass, which has high amounts of iron, manganese and titanium. A slightly higher amount of iron in an early Anglo-Saxon glass produced a colorless glass, with a yellow-green tinge. At the end of the 7th century, several innovations can be observed. With quality glass that is generally better, more colors are found and early tendency to use second color for decoration. Most Anglo-Saxon vessels are free to blow, though sometimes several instances of blown mold are found, mostly with vertical ribs. The rim is round fire, sometimes slightly thickened and cupped, rolled or folded in or out. Decorations are almost completely done with the imprint of a trace that can be in the same color as a vessel or contrast, or in the form of reticella-like traces.

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Glass beads

See also: Glass Beads and Bead.

Most early Anglo-Saxon female graves contain beads, often found in large numbers in the neck and chest areas. Beads are also sometimes found in male cemeteries, with large beads often associated with prestigious weapons. A variety of materials other than glass are available for Anglo-Saxon beads including; amber, crystal stone, amethyst, bone, shell, coral and even metal. These beads are usually considered decorative but may also have social or ritual functions. Anglo-Saxon glass beads show various techniques of making beads, sizes, shapes, colors and decorations. Various studies have been conducted investigating the distribution and chronological changes of bead types.

Several bead-making sites have been identified on the continent, with the presence of glass waste, beads and glass rods. Two late Roman sites up to the 5th century have been found in Trier and Tibiscum in Romania, while closer to England and dating to the 6-7th century, two other sites have been found in Jordenstraat and Rothulfuashem (The Netherlands). There is also extensive evidence to make bead workshops in Scandinavia that have been dated to the 8th or later century. The most notable examples are Eketorp in ÃÆ'-land (Sweden) and Ribe in Jutland (Denmark). There is a tendency for British archaeologists to assume that most of the glass beads found are imported. Although to date there is a lack of direct evidence for the manufacture of beads in early Anglo-Saxon England, there is evidence for it in early Christian Ireland, northern England and western post-Roman. It is also present on the Saxon monastic and settlement sites between the 7th and 9th centuries. However, indirect evidence from the distribution of early Saxon beads has been used to show that there are at least three groups of beads currently being produced in England.

To date only two extensive chemical analysis studies of the Anglo-Saxon bead collection have been performed, from Sewerby's cemetery in Yorkshire and Apple Down in Sussex. These studies show that, like glass vessels, the beads have a modified silica soda-lime composition with high manganese and iron oxide content. Variations of direct composition are related to the color of the glass. Leading rich frosted glass is also prominent in Anglo-Saxon England, most likely due to lower softening temperatures and longer working periods, which will not melt or deflect the bead's body. The bead body can be built in a number of different ways; winding, drawing, stabbing, folding or even this combination. The ornaments are applied by adding a color twisted rod, a colored mosaic pattern, attaching metal between layers of clear glass or simply adding different colors to the drops or pathways.

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Window glass

With the introduction of Christianity in the early seventh century and the building of ecclesiastical structures the number of glass windows also increased. Glass windows, some of which are also colored, have been identified on more than 17 sites, of which 12 are ecclesiastical. Hundreds of broken glass windows have been found in Jarrow, Wearmouth, Brandon, Whithorn and Winchester. This evidence supports historical records, such as Bede's account of Benedict Biscop's import of a glazier from Gaul to coat windows in a monastery in Wearmouth in 675 AD.

Most Anglo-Saxon window panes are thin, durable, bubbly and when colorless have a pale bluish green color. Many ecclesial sites also produce strong colored glass from the 7th century and beyond. Analysis of window glass from Beverley, Uley, Winchester, Whithorn, Wearmouth and Jarrow, has revealed that the majority of these are glasses of soda-lime-silica but have also revealed that different compositions of glass vessels, to a lesser extent. of iron, manganese and titanium show different sources of raw material, perhaps from The Levant. The analysis also reveals more about the transition from using soda as flux, to potassium.

The window glass of ancient times can be produced in three ways; blown cylinder, crown or cast manufacture. In Anglo-Saxon England there is evidence for all three types of methods used. Most of the glass windows are manufactured by blown cylinder method, although probably on a scale smaller than the classical method mentioned by Theophilus. Some Anglo-Saxon window glasses are produced by crown method and on Repton's thick glass pieces of glass windows with rotating layered surfaces may be made using cast method.

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Jewelry glass

The majority of jewelry in the sixth-seventh century intensive use of flat-cut almandine garnets with gold and garnet cloisonnÃÆ'Â © (or "working cells") but sometimes glass is also cut and pasted as gems. The colors used are almost entirely limited to blue and green. Sometimes red glass has been used instead of garnets, for example in some Sutton Hoo objects, such as a bag cover and blue glass on shoulder pads. The Forsbrook Pendant of the 7th century also mixed garnet and blue glass. Anglo-Saxon enamel is also used in the production of jewelry, with colored glass melted in separate cells.

Chemical analysis of this glass has revealed that they are glasses of silica-lime butda with a lower iron and manganese oxide content than the high iron, manganese and glass titanium used to make vessels. The similarity between the glass and glass compositions of the Roman colors is remarkable, so much so that it is quite possible that the Anglo-Saxon craftsmen reuse the Roman frosted glass, perhaps the Roman glass tesserae.

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See also

• Anglo-Saxon Art
Anglo-Saxon, culture and Anglo-Saxon people.
• Forest glasses

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Note

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References

• Biek, L. & amp; J. Bayley 1979. Glass and other vitreous materials. Archaeological world 11: 1-25.
• Bimson, M. 1978. Tinted and millefiori glass at Sutton Hoo Sailing Cemetery. In Annales du 7e congrÃÆ'¨s international d'etude historique du verre: Berlin, Leipzig, 15-21 aout 1977: LiÃÆ'¨ge: Edition du Secretariat GÃÆ' Â © nÃÆ' Â © ral.
• Bimson and Freestone. Analysis of some glass from Anglo-Saxon Jewelry. In Price 2000: 137-142.
• Brugmann, B. 2004. Glass beads from the Anglo-Saxon tomb: a study of the origin and chronology of glass beads from early Anglo-Saxon tombs, based on visual examinations. Oxford: Oxbow.
• Cramps, R. J. 1975. Window of Jarrow monastic site: Problem of interpretation. Journal of Glass Study 17: 88-96.
• Cramp, R. J. 2000. Anglo-Saxon Window Glass. In J. Price (ed.) Glass in England and Ireland AD 350-1100: 105-114. London: English Museum Occasional Paper 127.
• Eichholz, D. E. 1989. Natural history: Pliny Vol.10, Libri XXXVI-XXXVII. London: Heinemann.
• Freestone, I. C. 2005. The provenance of ancient glass through composition analysis. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 852: 1-14.
• Guido, M. & amp; M. Welch 1999. British Anglo-Saxon glass beads c. AD 400-700: early visual classification of a more definitive and diagnostic type. Rochester: Report from the Society of Antiqaries of London Research Committee 56.
• Harden, D. B. 1956. Glass Vessels in England and Ireland, A.D. 400-1000. In D. B. Harden (ed.) Dark-British age: the study is presented to E. T. Leeds with a bibliography of his work: London: Methuen.
• Harden, D. B. 1978. Anglo-Saxon and then Medieval glasses in England: Recent developments. Medieval Archeology 22: 1-24.
• Heck, M. & amp; P. Hoffmann 2002. Early Medieval Glass Glass Analysis: Raw materials to produce green, orange and brown. Mikrochimica Acta 139: 71-76.
• Henderson, J. 1992. Early medieval glass technology: tranquility before the storm. In S. Jennings and A. Vince (eds) of the European Middle Ages 1992: Volume 3 Technology and Innovation: 175-180. York: The Middle Ages of Europe 1992.
• Heyworth, M. 1992. Evidence for early medieval glass work in northwestern Europe. In S. Jennings and A. Vince (eds) of the European Middle Ages 1992: Volume 3 Technology and Innovation: 169-174. York: The Middle Ages of Europe 1992.
• Hunter, J. R. & amp; M. P. Heyworth 1998. Hamwic Glass. York: British Council of Archeology.
• Prices, J & amp; H. E. M. Cool 1991. Evidence for glass production in Roman Britain. In D. Foy and G. Sennequier (eds) Ateliers de verrier de l'antiquità © à © la la ri ri  © -industrielle: 23-30. Rouen: Association FranÃÆ'§ise pours l'ArchÃÆ' © ologie du Verre.
• Price, J. 2000. Glass in the UK and Ireland AD 350-1100. London: English Museum Occasional Paper 127.
• Sanderson, D. C., J. R. Hunter & amp; S. E. Warren 1984. Fluorescence Dispersive Energy X-ray Fluorescence Analysis from the First Millennium of England. Journal of Archeology 11: 53-69.
• Shortland, A., L. Schachner, I. C. Freestone & amp; M. S. Tite 2006. Natron as the flux in the early vitreous material industry: the source, the beginning and the reasons for the decline. Journal of Archeology 33: 521-530.

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External links

• Anglo-Saxon, Viking, Norman and British Living History 950-1066AD. Glass and Amber
• Anglo-Saxon Glass Catalog at the British Museum, Vera I. Evison et al. , 2008, online text
• The London Museum, Anglo-Saxon Glass found

Source of the article : Wikipedia